Footnotes - expDiasporaAlg

Footnotes/Further Reading

Footnote # 1

See Peter Thomas, "In the Maelstrom of Change," 1979.

Footnote # 2

As just one example of a trading agreement, Christopher Levett wrote about his 1628 meeting at Boothbay Harbour with the sachems or sagamores Sadamoyt, Manawormet, Opparunwit (Runnawit), Shedragusset (Squidrayset), Cogawesco, Somerset (Samoset), and Conway (Passaconnaway), all representing the Almouchiquois or Central Abenaki:

They asked me what I would do with my house, I told them I would leave ten of my men there until I came again, and that they should kill all the Tarrentens they should see (being enemies to them) and with whom the English have no commerce. At which they rejoiced exceedingly, and then spoke among themselves that when the time should be expired, which I spoke of for my return, every one at that place where he lived should look to the sea, and when they did see a ship they would send to all the sagamores in the country, and tell them that poor Levett was come again...

Levett [1628] 1843:175.

Footnote # 3

For a discussion of the economics and politics of wampum production and distribution, see Lynn Ceci, "Native Wampum as a Peripheral Resource in the Seventeenth-Century World-System," 1990.

Footnote # 4

...for I heare that Pacumtuk will psue the Quarrel & joyne wth ye Indians [Mohican] of the duch River [Hudson River] against ym [Uncas], but the Naricanset [Narragansett] must begin the war, and as I heare eather yesterday or this day [July 5, 1648] is like to be ye day of fight between them & ye Naricanset: though these [Connecticut] River Indians will delay their tyme till the tyme that corne begins to be ripe; but now they are making a very large & a strong fort.

William Pynchon to Governor John Winthrop, May 5, 1648, in Temple 1887:37 38.

Footnote # 5

On the twenty-fourth of April [1650], the Sokouckiois arrives, bringing a message on the part of four villages,— to wit, of the Sokouckiois [Sokoki], of the Pagamptagwe [Pocumtuck], of the Penagouc [Pennacook], and of the Mahingans [Mohican], situated on the river of manate [Hudson River]; he answers the propositions that I had made to him by word of mouth, last autumn, the eighteenth of November. (The Abnaquiois [Abenakis], joining me, had made a present to the Sokouckiois, of fifteen [wampum] collars, and ten or twelve porcelain [wampum] bracelets, which might be valued at seven or eight bundles of Beaver skins,—in order to say to them: " Do what Onontio [the French governor] and tekwirimaeth tell you.") He said that those four villages, having held a Council during three months of the past winter, had resolved to take the risks against the Iroquois with Onontio and Noel, whether the English did or did not undertake the war against the Iroquois; and...they will oppose every other nation whatsoever that may wish to make war toward Quebecq...

Father Gabriel Druillettes, 1650, in Jesuit Relations 1898, p. 100-101.

Footnote # 6

I grant they are all wthin ye line of yr pattent, but you cannot say that therefore they are yr subjects nor yet within yr jurisdiction untill they have fully subjected themselves to yr government (wch I know they have not) & untill you have bought their land: untill this be done they must be esteemed as an Independant free people...

William Pynchon to Governor John Winthrop, May 5, 1648, in Temple 1887:37 38.

Footnote # 7

Pynchon's rules for Native conduct at the Nonotuck fort included the following:

1. first they shall not break the Saboath by workeing or gameing or caring burdens or ye like.

2. They shall not pawway on that place or any wher els amogst us.

3. They shall not gett liquoer or Sider and drinke themselues drunk and soe kill one an other as they haue done.

4. They shall not take in other Indians of other places to seat amogst them, wee alow only Nowutague Indians yt were the Inhabytants of the place.

Trumbull 1898, p. 177-78.

Footnote # 8

During the seventeenth century, the New England colonies often celebrated and set aside dates that marked victories over the Indians. After the massacre at the Pequot Fort, Massachusetts Bay Colony set aside October 12 as a day of "thanksgiving to God for subduing the Pequots." The date of August 12, 1676, when Metacom was killed, was declared a formal "day of public thanksgiving" for the English victory."

Grace and Bruchac 2001:46.

Footnote # 9

For examples of some of the many ways in which Native peoples adapted to English settlements and persisted in New England, see the detailed introduction and essays in the volume After King Philip's War: Presence and Persistence in Indian New England, Calloway 1997.

Footnote # 10

The Jesuit Records indicate that there was a large migration of Connecticut River valley peoples to Odanak in 1675.

At the very beginning of the war that the abenakis have waged with the English, many of them dreading the consequences, Resolved to take Refuge in the country inhabited by the French...Two tribes especially - namely, that called the Sokokis, and that of the Abnakis – carried out their design, and set out upon their journey about the beginning of the summer of the year 1675. The Sockokis took the Road to Three Rivers, where they have settled; and the abnakis, of whom we shall speak in this Relation, found shelter at this place called Sillery, which was formerly so Renowned on account of the algonkin missions.

Jesuit Relations volume 40:233, cited in Day 1981:16.

Footnote # 11

For a full discussion of the peopling of Odanak/St. Francis, see Gordon Day, The Identity of the St. Francis Indians, 1981.

Footnote # 12

...gov. of boston this is to let you understand, how we have been abused. We love yo but...because there was war at naragans [Narragansett] you com here when we were quiet & took away our gons & mad prisners of our chief sagamore & that winter for want of gons there was several starved we count it killed with us...Now we hear that you say you will not leave war as long as one engon [Indian] is in the country we are owners of the country & it is wide and full of engons & we can drive you out but our desire is to be quiet...this is to let you know how major walldin [Waldron] served us...Major Wadin have been the cause of killing all that have bin killed this sommer...July 1677, Diogenes Madoasquarbet.

Baxter Manuscripts Vol. 6:177-178.

Footnote # 13

James Labourie, Hugenot minister, wrote to Bellemont about the sudden departure of a group of Nipmuc Indians from what is now Oxford, Massachusetts:

17 June 1700. The four Indians who returned here are departing to day for Penikook with 25 others whom they have persuaded, in spite of all my efforts, to accompany them. They gave as a reason that the inhabitants of New Roxbury continually annoyed them, and when I was not satisfied, they said that the religion of the Penikook Indians was more beautiful than ours, for the French gave them silver crosses to wear on their necks, and they added that there was another strong reason which they could not tell but would soon by known.

Headlam, Calendar of State Papers 1700: #619ii, in Stewart-Smith 1999:252.

Footnote # 14

The Wabanaki Confederacy today includes two tribes of the Passamaquoddy Nation, one tribe of the Penobscot Nation, several tribes of the Malecite Nation, over 20 tribes of the Mi'kmaq or Micmac Nation, the Wolinak Abenaki, the Abenaki Nation and several other groups of Western Abenaki.

The Abenaki Nation includes the St. Francis Sokoki Band or Abenaki Nation at Missisquoi based in Swanton, VT, as well as the Abenaki Nation at Odanak, historically called the St. Francis, and now called the Odanak Band by the Canadian government. In Vermont, Western Abenaki applies to several historical and contemporary tribal groups, including the Sokoki or Sokwakiak from Brattleboro, VT to Northfield, MA, the Coos, Cowasuck or Cowassiak from Newbury to Lunenburg, VT, and the Nulheganook, Coaticook, and Kikomkwak of the Northeast Kingdom. The continuously inhabited village site along the Missisquoi River and the northeastern border of Lake Champlain, is also identified in various historical records as Missisiak, Mazipskoik (in Abenaki) or Missisquoi (in French and English).

Bruchac, "Wobanakiak: Linguistic Notes and Ethnographic Terms," in The Abenaki of Vermont: A Living Culture 2002: 16